Rainfall is known as one of the main factors for the soil erosion. This process has been responsible for the damage of many slopes in different parts of the country, which have an agricultural usage. Therefore identification and utilization of some practical methods of soil erosion control is very necessary since these methods directly affect the agricultural development. In this paper, drainage system, geosynthetics, as well as vegetation are examined as some practical methods for the soil erosion controls. As regards the use of a drainage system, the different aspects of it are presented in the paper. In terms of the use of geosynthetics for soil erosion control, the use of geocells, geomats and biomats are briefly discussed. Furthermore, the vegetation effects on erosion control are mentioned from a hydrological and a mechanical point of view. In addition, different aspects of the effect of soil erosion control on economic development are also evaluated. Some environmental and geo-environmental aspects of soil erosion control are addressed and discussed from an engineering and agricultural point of view, as well.

Splash erosion is recognized as the first stage in the process of erosion that results in bombardment of the soil's surface with rain drops. Two basic processes in soil erosion are the dispersement of soil particles by rain drops and the changes caused to the soil's structure, which are then moved by runoff. In this research, the effect of various polyacrylamide (PAM)values (0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 g/m2) on the amount of splash erosion at two rain intensities (95 and 120 mm/h)by the use of laboratory generated rain (FEL3)were analyzed. Experiments were undertaken with marl soil. After calibrating the rainfall simulator, soil samples were weighed and treated with PAM. Next the effects of rainfall intensities at 95 and 120 mm/h for 10 minutes were studied. Initially samples were oven-dried for 24 hours, at 105oC. Next, samples were reweighed to determine the amount of soil lost. According to the results, there was no statistical correlation between rain intensity at 95 and 120 mm/h and decreased soil erosion. Howevert here was a relationship between the different amounts of PAM (0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 g/m2) and splash erosion control. The most effect on controlling splash soil erosion was seen with PAM at 6 kilograms/hectare when compared with 2 and 4 kilograms/hectare, which is 28.93% effective in decreasing erosion. The main two factors, intensity and treatment, were not statistically significant. There was no statistical significance noted at a rain intensity of 95 mm/h. Howeverat a rain intensity 120 mm/h, with different amounts of PAM, there was a significant difference in splash erosion control at 4 kilogram/hectare which had a maximum effect of 40% in controlling soil erosion.

Cyanobacteria are one of the main components of soil biocrusts in arid and semi-arid regions that grow in the surface layer of the soil. They actively participate in the cycle of elements by secreting polysaccharides and play an important role in improving soil quality and fertility. Accordingly, they have been used in soil and water resources conservation issues in recent years through cultivating and producing the required biomass in laboratory conditions and inoculating at the soil surface. However, the proper media for optimal growth of the soil microorganisms have not been reported comprehensively. The present study was conducted to select the optimal culture medium for the growth of cyanobacteria in experimental conditions. For this purpose, the performance of three culture media viz. BBM, BG11 and CHU10 was compared during the one-month growth period of soil cyanobacteria. In this regard, the types of grown microorganisms as well as the number of cyanobacteria present during the growth period of one-month and on average once every 4 days were examined. The results showed that soil cyanobacteria in BBM culture medium had better growth than the other two culture media and at the end of the growth period, the number of cyanobacteria grown in BBM, BG11 and CHU10 medium was 91790, 48638 and 1491, respectively, per milliliter. Therefore, BBM culture medium is proposed as the optimal culture medium for use in preparing the biomass required by cyanobacteria for inoculation at the soil surface.

Background and Objectives: Nowadays, study about the reclamation of abandoned skid trails is necessary due to their frequency in forestry units of north of Iran especially in so-called respiration period. These skid trails turn to be bare after the primary transportation (especially within first transportation years) where resulted in erosion and damage to soil forest. The aim of this study was to determine the best conservation treatments to deal with skid trails’ water erosion. Materials and Methods: Firstly, a skid trail with a minimum length of 500 meters was selected in Bahramnia’ s forestry plan. The longitudinal slope was divided into slope classes of 20-40% and >40%. In each class a segment with a length of 126 meters was determined and treatments of ditch & embankment, ditch & slash and ditch & stone each of in length of 14 meters with 5 meters interval were implemented. A rubber bar was installed at the end of each segment to convert sediment and runoff in to collectors. Sampling was done after each rainfall during 4 months (autumn and winter 2019 and 2020). The Intensity – Duration rainfall information has been determined using Rain gauge in the study area, then dry weight of sediment samples has been measured in laboratory. Results: Findings indicated that in both slope classes of 20-40% and >40% amount of runoff, sediment concentration and soil loss was significantly increased along with increasing intensity and duration of rainfall. In slope class of 20-40%, skid trail treated by ditch and slash was better than other treatments in sedimentation and soil loss control. In slope class of >40%, there wasn’ t significant difference between the efficiency of treatments in sediment and soil loss control. Whereas, generally, treatments of ditch and slash as well as ditch and stone were more successful to control soil erosion than ditch & embankment treatment. In both slope classes, the rainfall intensity of 0. 11 mm h-1 (2. 64 mm in 24 h) was the threshold of water erosion of soil on skid trails. Likewise, the interaction effect of slope and treatment type was not significant on runoff volume’ s variables as well as sediment concentration and soil loss. Findings indicated that the ditch & slash treatment, in slope class of 20-40%, were the best in terms of sedimentation and soil loss control which could mitigate soil waste by 64%. In unallowable slope >40% all treatment could mitigate soil erosion by 47% which indicates the low efficiency of conservational treatments in unallowable slope tracks. Conclusion: This research showed that ditch & slash treatment can reduce soil erosion in skid trails, so given to conservation this treatment can be used in other regions of the Hyrcanian Forest to protect skid trail against soil erosion.

Extended Abstract Background: Soil erosion, a significant form of land degradation, poses severe challenges to humanity in different ecosystems. It serves as a comprehensive index for evaluating the development and sustainability of land management programs. Assessing the status and spatial extent of soil erosion has become crucial in developing countries. Biological management, a recommended and effective means of controlling soil erosion in the early stages of all processes, offers a practical solution. Biological methods, such as minimum tillage operations and limited intervention in nature, prove to be more cost-effective and efficient than structural measures. Despite these advantages, biological measures have not received adequate attention in soil erosion control. This research addresses this gap by applying biological management in the Kilanbar Watershed (Kermanshah Province, Iran), demonstrating its effectiveness and cost-efficiency. Methods: The layers of elevation from sea level, aspect, and slope steepness were prepared and combined in the geographic information system (GIS) software to prepare 38 land units. In the Kilanbar Watershed, 14 land units with the ability to perform biological management measures were extracted based on the expert and technical opinions of the watershed manager and considering different bases to improve the performance and decision-making of the units with an area of less than 300 ha. The Kilanbar Watershed is located in Ravansar City, west of Kermanshah Province. The study area is approximately 10798 ha. The highest and lowest elevation points of the watershed are 2183 and 1388 m above mean sea level, respectively. The mean annual precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity are 533 mm, 11.4 °C, and 45.1%, respectively. The status of soil erosion in each land unit was completed based on the scoring of the BLM form based on the visual and expert opinions, and a map of the erosion pattern was prepared in the land units. Ambrotropic and hyetographs were drawn using the 30-year precipitation and temperature data of the Ravansar synoptic station to determine the periods of drought and wet conditions and to identify suitable plants with the characteristics of the region. A climatic–agricultural map was prepared and integrated into the GIS using meteorological station data (temperature, precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration), and plant species were selected according to ecological expectations for watershed biological measures. Results: According to the BLM form results, one and eight land units are in partial and low erosion conditions, respectively, and five other land units are in medium erosion conditions. According to the erosion pattern map, the majority of the studied area, about 70% of the watershed, is in a low and medium erosion state, which naturally confirms the high ability to use appropriate biological measures to control soil erosion. According to ambrothermic and hyetograph measurements, June to September were dry months, and precipitation changes were more significant than temperature changes from October to May. According to the climatic–agricultural map, the region is divided into five classes. Class 4 (4819.3 ha) and Class 1 (364.83 ha) had the largest and smallest areas, respectively. Finally, the zoning of suitable rangeland species in the watershed showed that rangeland species of Asteragalus ascendes, Avena fatua, Picnomon sp., Achillea millefolium, Bromus tomentellus, and Hordum blubosum dominantly covered the region. Based on the study results, appropriate plant species were introduced for the studied watershed. Accordingly, conservation and reclamation measures were recommended to improve land productivity and ecological conditions and avoid land use changes for the study area. The essential measures include vegetation in rangeland ecosystems aiming at preventing the role of the canopy cover from directly impacting raindrops on the soil surface, increasing water infiltration in the soil, stabilizing soil aggregates due to roots extension, increasing grazing capacity and livestock production, and increasing its efficiency and productivity with time. Conclusion: The findings of this study hold significant potential for the Kilanbar Watershed. The proposed biological erosion measures, tailored to the ecosystem's unique conditions, are effective, low-cost, and environmentally compatible. They offer a sustainable solution for managing soil and water resources in various ecosystems. Implementing these measures can significantly reduce soil erosion in the watershed, particularly in areas with low to moderate erosion status. This research is an essential initiative in applying biological erosion measures in the Kilanbar Watershed, demonstrating that soil erosion can be effectively and practically controlled in approximately 67% of the watershed through biological methods in the critical land-use areas of rangelands and agriculture. It is important to note that applying biological erosion measures requires comprehensive and integrated investigations, considering the different parts of the ecosystem. With these findings, the proposed approach in this research can be extended to other watersheds across the country, particularly those with slight to moderate erosion status, while maintaining the principle of comprehensiveness and respecting the unique conditions of each watershed.

Soil aggregate stability and its spatial distribution can be considered as a good indicator for assessing the results of measures conducted for mitigation soil erosion. This study was conducted in two adjacent sites in Chahmari region, Kuzestan province. At one site afforestation and contour furrowing were conducted to control soil erosion and the adjacent site with no controlling measures was considered as control. A total of 150 soil samples were collected from the surface layer (0-5 cm) of two sites and mean weight diameter of aggregates (MWD) were measured using dry and wet sieving (MWDd and MWDw, respectively). Based on digital soil mapping (DSM) approach and to map MWD spatially, several environmental covariates were derived from a Landsat 8 image and a digital elevation model (DEM). Two machine learning algorithms including artificial neural networks (ANN) and regression trees (RT) were used to predict MWD with covariates as inputs. Results indicated a significant difference between MWDd in two sites, but no significant difference was found between MWDw. Correlation analysis revealed no correlation between MWDw and all terrain attributes derived from the DEM, but significant correlations were obtained between MWDd and some terrain attributes. Most covariates derived from Landsat images had significant correlation with both MWDw and MWDd. ANN and TR had relatively high and almost the same accuracy in predicting MWDw, but in predicting MWDd, ANN was superior to RT. In general, the findings showed good performance of DSM techniques in predicting and spatial mapping of MWD.

One of the main challenges of arid and desert regions is to control wind erosion that can cause significant economic and environmental damage. The present study aimed to stabilize erosion-prone soil using a vegetable mulch prepared from Eremurus spectabilis root powder. The effects of concentration and amount of mulch spraying on the soil erosion was investigated and the penetration and reduction of the thickness of the fixed layer against wind speeds of 6, 9, 12 and 15 m/s for 5 minutes was studied in the wind tunnel. Finally, EC, pH, salinity and other soil elements were tested to evaluate the environmental impact of mulching. The results showed that increasing the amount of mulch spraying results in more mulch penetration in the soil and increasing the mulch concentration, despite reducing the depth of its penetration into the soil due to increasing the amount of adhesion between the soil particles, its greater resistance to wind erosion. In addition, based on the results, mulches with concentrations of 0. 2, 0. 6 and 0. 7% can stabilize the soil against the wind stream, up to maximum of 9, 12 and 15 m/s, respectively. Generally, the mulch is environmentally friendly and is an appropriate option for controlling the erosion of wind erosion-prone soil.

Composing multi criteria and factors and do right decision making in rangelands for Biological soil Erosion Control is very complicate and strongly need to apply computer and spatial decision support systems. With these and experience a decision maker can show the best solution fast. Hable Roud watershed had many spatial data that provided by companies and organizations. Rangelands in this watershed were selected. A model for compositing the natural suitable spatial factors (sediment discharge, slope, rainfall, Range Factors: animal unit month, range trend, range condition), economic (proximity to road, proximity to villages, proximity to rivers, proximity to wells, proximity to spring) and constraints (slope, land use, village, roads, rivers, and rainfall shortage) was designed for suitable biological soil erosion control planning. Then they were standardized in value range between 0 & 1. They were weighted by analytical hierarchical processing (AHP). Of course some cases were weighted by direct method. Compositing of these layers were done by spatial multi criteria evaluation (SMCE). Output was composite index map. This map was classified by its histogram, and identified in each class which measure should be done. Biological soil erosion control plan was recommended (manure spreading, seeding with manure spreading, seedling and enclosure).